History of research in Antarctica
History of research in Antarctica
Although the existence of Antarctica has been proposed for literally thousands of years, since the times of the Ancient Greeks, and explorers have battled against the harsh conditions of the Southern Ocean for centuries, the discovery of Antarctica was a long, drawn-out process.
Sir Francis Drake, after whom the Drake’s Passage is named, navigated Cape Horn in 1578. It wasn’t until 1700 that Halley crossed the Antarctic Convergence and spotted the first southern icebergs, and records show the first validated sightings of the Antarctic Peninsula only about 180 years ago.
By the 18th and 19th centuries, trips to the Drakes Passage were relatively common, when sealers and whalers plundered the natural resources of the subantarctic islands. However, there was little room for scientific investigation at this time. Despite this, two sealers, Palmer and Powell, did carry out science when time allowed. Dr James Eights was the first full time scientist to visit the Antarctic and discovered beautiful sea creatures, such as giant sea spiders, and collected the first Antarctic fossils.
In 1820-21, Weddell visited the Antarctic and carried out a number of scientific investigations and takes the title of the first Antarctic conservationist as he tried to find ways to manage the fur seal populations.
In 1831, Biscoe carried out some of the first hydrographic observations in Antarctic waters.
The mid 19th century saw the beginning of the age of exploration, with the race to the Southern Magnetic Pole. Competitors included the likes of d’Urvile, Wilkes and Ross.
By the 20th century, other famous names joined the list including Gerlache, Borchgrevink, Drygalski, Scott, Shackleton, Larsen, Charcot, Amundsen, Shirase and Mawson.
With more visitors to the Antarctic continent, whaling and sealing increased, threatening native species until the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, which marked the end of the International Geophysical Year. Also at this time, territorial claims were frozen and further expeditions were reserved for scientific purposes only, many of which focused in the Drakes Passage, Scotia Sea and Antarctic Peninsula.
The US Antarctic Program (USAP) was established in the late 1950s and US-Argentine collaborations in the 1960s culminated in the first International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Exploration, which measured deep water currents. Soviet efforts also strengthened, leading to POLEX-South, a long term monitoring project investigating air-sea interactions.
By 1981, the US and USSR led a joint expedition to the Weddell Sea for parts of the winter and the German ship, the Polarstern, went into Weddell Sea for the entire winter for the 1st time in 1986. On ship physical oceanographic measurements became routine (Conductivity Temperature Depth profiles or “CTDs”) by the mid 1980s off the British ship, the Biscoe.
Today, the United States Antarctic Program (USAP) runs two full time science vessels in winter and summer, the Nathaniel B Palmer and the Laurence M Gould, with 28 cruises planned for 2008.
The RV Nathaniel B. Palmer, named after the American who is thought to have first seen Antarctica, was built in 1992 for the US Antarctic Program. It can sail in Antarctic waters safely because it has an extra strong hull that can break through ice. 37 scientists and 22 crew can live and work on board for up to 75 days. When the scientists and crew have spare time, there’s an onboard mess hall, lounge and workout room.
Sources and for further information:
- Antarctica Online History
- A history of Antarctic Science (G.E. Fogg, 1992).
- United States Antarctic Program